The Change Processes in Selective Attention during Adulthood. Inhibition or Processing Speed?

Selective attention is involved in multiple daily activities. Several authors state that it experiences a decline after 20 years, although there is no agreement regarding the cognitive processes that explain it. Two theories dominate the discussion: The theory of inhibitory inefficiency and the theory of processing speed. At the same time, it has been suggested that there could be complementary relations between both; however, it is not clear what the contribution of inhibition and processing speed is on the changes of selective attention. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze this contribution, in adults between 20 and 80 years old. To assess selective attention and inhibitory control, two indices of a visual search task were obtained in which participants must identify a target stimulus among a set of distracting stimuli. To evaluate the processing speed, a response speed task was used. The main results indicate that, from the age of 60, a gradual decrease in selective attention begins and that this decline can be largely explained by a decrease in processing speed and inhibitory control. We discuss about the literature on the development of selective attention, the contribution of processing speed, and the inhibitory inefficiency hypothesis.

The change processes in selective attention during adulthood. Inhibition or processing speed?

Selective attention is involved in multiple daily activities. Several authors state that it experiences a decline after 20 years, although there is no agreement regarding the cognitive processes that explain it. Two theories dominate the discussion: The theory of inhibitory inefficiency and the theory of processing speed. At the same time, it has been suggested that there could be complementary relations between both; however, it is not clear what the contribution of inhibition and processing speed is on the changes of selective attention. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze this contribution, in adults between 20 and 80 years old. To assess selective attention and inhibitory control, two indices of a visual search task were obtained in which participants must identify a target stimulus among a set of distracting stimuli. To evaluate the processing speed, a response speed task was used. The main results indicate that, from the age of 60, a gradual decrease in selective attention begins and that this decline can be largely explained by a decrease in processing speed and inhibitory control. We discuss about the literature on the development of selective attention, the contribution of processing speed, and the inhibitory inefficiency hypothesis

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Flexibilidad cognitiva y tres procesos inhibitorios durante los primeros años de la escolaridad primaria / Cognitive flexibility and three inhibitory processes during the first years of school period

La inhibición y la flexibilidad cognitiva son funciones ejecutivas principales, mientras la primera aportaría al funcionamiento de la segunda. Actualmente, se identifican distintos procesos inhibitorios -inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta- que presentarían relaciones diferenciales con diversas habilidades. Sin embargo, no se registran estudios sobre tales relaciones con la flexibilidad cognitiva durante los primeros años escolares, donde estas funciones están en desarrollo y contribuyen con el desempeño escolar. Este trabajo se propuso estudiar la relación y contribución de cada proceso inhibitorio a la flexibilidad cognitiva en niños escolares de 6 a 8 años. Los participantes (N=171) efectuaron tareas inhibitorias y de flexibilidad cognitiva. Los resultados muestran una relación baja entre la inhibición perceptual y la flexibilidad cognitiva y ausencia de relaciones con los otros procesos inhibitorios. Ello aporta evidencia al modelo no-unitario de la inhibición y permite discutir sobre la relación de los procesos durante el desarrollo(AU)

Inhibition and cognitive flexibility are basic executive functions, and inhibition would contribute to performance of cognitive flexibility. Actually, different inhibitory processes are identified ­perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. They engagement differentially in diverse skills; however, studies about differential relationships between inhibitory processes and cognitive flexibility during first years of school period are not registered. At this stage, all of these functions are in development and are essential for children's academic performance. The goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of each inhibitory process with the cognitive flexibility, in scholar children from 6 to 8 years-old. The participants (N=171) carried out inhibitory and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results show low relation between perceptual inhibition and cognitive flexibility, and absence of relations with other inhibitory processes. The study contributes evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition, and allows discuss about relationships between these functions during the development(AU)

Desarrollo de la inhibición perceptual en contextos emocionales y neutrales población infantil / Development of perceptual inhibition in emotional and neutral contexts in children

La inhibición perceptual es el proceso encargado de suprimir la interferencia de distractores externos. A pesar del rol central que juega la inhibición en dominios heterogéneos (como la salud mental, las habilidades académicas, o el desarrollo), la investigación en la temática muestra una comprensión limitada del desarrollo de este proceso, que además ha focalizado su estudio en contextos neutrales. Por ello, el objetivo del estudio fue analizar el desarrollo de la inhibición perceptual en contextos emocionales y neutrales en población infantil. Participaron del estudio 407 niños/as de 8 a 12 años, que fueron evaluados con una tarea informatizada basada en el paradigma de flancos y del distractor enteramente irrelevante. Los resultados mostraron que este proceso se desarrolla de manera progresiva y gradual, sin diferencias en función del contexto o dominio de aplicación. De este modo, permiten extender los resultados hallados principalmente en contextos neutrales, al contexto emocional. Este estudio constituye un aporte a la comprensión del desarrollo de este proceso inhibitorio, en ambos contextos (emocionales y neutrales)

Perceptual inhibition is the process responsible for suppressing the interference generated by external distractors. Despite the fact that inhibition plays a central role in heterogeneous domains (such as mental health, well-being, academic skills, and even development), research shows a limited understanding of the development of this process and has also focused mostly on neutral contexts. For this reason, this work aims to analyze the development of perceptual inhibition in emotional and neutral contexts in children. To this end, 407 children aged 8 to 12 years participated in the study. They were evaluated with a computerized task based on the flanker paradigm and the entirely irrelevant distractor paradigm. The results showed that perceptual inhibition develops gradually, and shows no differences depending on the context or domain. These findings allow the extension of previous results found in neutral contexts to the emotional context. This study constitutes a contribution to the understanding of development of this inhibitory process in both contexts (emotional and neutral)

Relaciones entre empatia y teoría de la mente en niños y adolescentes / Relation between Empathy and Theory of Mind in Children and Adolescents / Relações entre empatia e teoria da mente em crianças e adolescentes

Resumen Objetivo. Caracterizar la teoría de la mente (TM) y la empatía en niños y adolescentes, y analizar si existe una interacción diferencial entre ambos procesos según la etapa del desarrollo. Este objetivo se basa en que el estudio de la cognición social sugiere que la TM asiste a la capacidad empática en la atribución de emociones y de la comprensión del estado emocional ajeno. Método. Estudio correlacional con diseño transversal-correlacional. Se empleó una muestra no probabilística de 168 participantes (61 niños y 107 adolescentes) de ambos sexos. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron el Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) y el Test de las Miradas. Resultados. Se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la subescala preocupación empática (t = -3,53, p = 0.001) y en el Test de las Miradas (t = -2.94, p = 0.004) a favor de los adolescentes; sin embargo, no se hallaron diferencias entre grupos de acuerdo a las escalas cognitivas del IRI (t = 1.07, p = 0.82; t = -0.04, p = 0.96). En cuanto a la relación entre los procesos cognitivos sociales, se encontró una correlación positiva entre la empatía y la TM en los niños (r = 0.24, p = 0.54) y negativa en los adolescentes (r = -0.19, p = 0.49). Conclusión. Existe complementariedad funcional entre la empatía cognitiva y la TM en la infancia, pero no en la adolescencia, etapa en la que dichos procesos parecen comenzar a funcionar con mayor independencia.

Abstract Objective. The study of social cognition provides neuroscientific evidence showing that the theory of mind (ToM) fosters empathy through the attribution of emotions and the understanding of the emotional state of others. This work aims to characterize empathy and ToM in children and adolescents, analyzing whether there is a differential interaction between both processes, according to the stage of development. Method. A correlational study with transversal-correlational design was employed. A non-probabilistic sample of 168 participants (61 children and 107 adolescents) were used in the study. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes's Test were used. Results. According to the stage of development, statistically significant differences were found in the subscale Empathic Concern (t = -3,53, p = 0.001) and in Reading the Mind in the Eye's (t = -2.94, p = 0.004) in favor of adolescents, no differences between groups with respect to the IRI's cognitive scales (t = 1.07, p = 0.82; t = -0.04, p = 0.96) were found. Regarding the relation between social cognitive processes, a positive correlation between empathy and ToM in children (r = 0.24, p = 0.54), and a negative correlation in adolescents (r = -0.19, p = 0.49) was found. Conclusion. The results provide evidence in favor of the functional complementarity of cognitive empathy and ToM in childhood, but not in adolescence, a stage in which these processes seem to begin to function with greater independence.

Resumo Escopo. O estudo da cognição social sugere que a teoria da mente (TM) assiste à capacidade empática na atribuição de emoções e da compreensão do estado emocional alheio. Por isto, o presente trabalho, teve por escopo caracterizar a TM e a empatia em crianças e adolescentes e analisar a possibilidade de uma interação diferencial entre os dois processos segundo a etapa de desenvolvimento. Metodologia. Estudo correlacional com desenho Transversal-correlacional; foi empregada uma amostra não probabilística de 168 participantes (61 crianças e 107 adolescentes) dos dois sexos. Os instrumentos utilizados foram o Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) e o Teste das Olhadas. Resultados. Foram encontrados diferencias estatisticamente significativas na sub-escada preocupação empática (t = -3,53, p = 0.001) e no teste das olhadas (t = -2.94, p = 0.004) a favor dos adolescentes; porém, não foram encontradas diferencias entre grupos de acordo às escadas cognitivas do IRI (t = 1.07, p = 0.82; t = -0.04, p = 0.96). Em quanto à relação entre os processos cognitivos sociais, foi encontrada uma correlação positiva entre empatia e a TM nas crianças (r = 0.24, p = 0.54) e negativas nos adolescentes (r = -0.19, p = 0.49). Conclusão. Existe complementariedade funcional entre a empatia cognitiva e a TM na infância, mas não na adolescência, etapa na que os processos mencionados parecem começar a funcionar com maior independência.

[Classification statistical techniques: an applied and comparative study]. / Técnicas estadísticas de clasificación: un estudio comparativo y aplicado.

The aim of this article is to assess and compare three classification statistical techniques--logistic regression, discriminant analysis and classification trees--to identify the personality characteristics associated with the risk of suffering from ischemic cardiovascular acute episodes (ICAE). The sample comprised 313 participants, men and women, aged from 36 to 80. Participants were divided into two groups: a clinical group of patients (n = 143) who were diagnosed as suffering from ICAE, and a control group (n = 170). Both groups were equated in gender, age, socio-economic and educational level. In view of the comparative study of the analytical procedures, we recommend classification trees as the best choice, as it was the most accurate for the individuals in the clinical group, a simple data analysis and a meaningful clinical interpretation. The predictive validity analysis of the MCMI-II allowed the construction of a reduced version made up of 9 personality scales from the 22 scales in the original version. Thus, we could identify the patients with a higher probability of suffering from ICAE, and additionally, generate an empirical model comprising seven and five personality profiles associated, respectively, with the increase and the decrease of the probability of suffering from ICAE.

Modificaciones del paradigma de gramáticas artificiales para niños / Modifications of the Artificial Grammars Paradigm for children

El objetivo del presente artículo es describir y analizar las modificaciones al paradigma de Gramáticas artificiales de Reber, que permiten su aplicación en niños a partir de la inclusión de juegos interactivos en soporte informático en dos formatos de presentación: alfabético y figurativo. Se trabajó con una muestra de 50 niños, divididos en dos grupos (tercero y quintoaño) de enseñanza general básica de una escuela estatal de Mar del Plata, Argentina. Las puntuaciones obtenidas en ambas pruebas de aprendizaje implícito mostraron ser significativascon respecto a lo esperado por azar. Las diferencias de las medias (para muestras relacionadas) de los resultados de ambas pruebas no fueron significativas. Las modificaciones sugeridas implican un aporte para evaluar el Aprendizaje Implícito en niños con elementos estimularesy procedimentales basados en la retroalimentación que facilitan la adecuación de los niños ala lógica interna de las pruebas.

The aim of the present article is to describe and analyze some modifications to the ArtificialGrammars Learning Paradigm that makes it adaptable to children by using interactive computer games presented in two formats: Alphabetical and Figurative. We worked with a sample of 50 children of third and fifth year of Basic General Education (EGB) from a Provincial School of Mar del Plata, Argentina. The punctuations obtained in both tests of Implicit Learning weresignificant with regard to what was expected by chance. The means comparison (pair-samples) shows that the differences between both tests were not significant. The suggested modifications imply a contribution to the evaluation of Implicit Learning in children with new procedural andvisual elements, based on the feedback.